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Shameena silva asked:


What is Organizational Culture?

The culture of the organization could probably be described as the environment that surrounds the people at work all of the time. Not only that, but it is also considered to be a powerful element that paves way to shape the work environment, the work relationships and the work processes. In other words, it could also be described as the personality of the organization, meaning to say that the culture of an organization basically highlights what kind of organization it is in the first place.

The organizational culture is basically made up of assumptions, values, beliefs, attitudes and the artefacts of the people in the entire organization. In other words, it is made up of all the real life experiences brought in by the employees in addition to the influence of the organization’s founder, executives and the other managerial staff who are involved in the decision making process of the organization. Having said that, in order to understand the culture of an organization more clearly let us look at some of the characteristics of the organizational culture.

Some characteristics of Organizational culture
The organization culture cannot be created over night but evolves overtime. This is because the culture is made up of values and beliefs shared among the organization members. It is not just possible for an individual to create the culture of an organization alone. Rather it is a combination of the personalities and experiences of all the people working in the organization. To say, everybody who has worked for the organization has some way or the other contributed to shaping the culture. Other than the employees, the founder of the organization in particular and the managerial staff of the organization have too played a role in shaping the culture. There may also be subcultures present within the organizational culture. These subcultures are formed as a result of the different needs and wants of the employees. To say, sometimes the employees may look for rewards that are not offered by the overall company.  As a result, they may form their group   within their own department with their own culture that rewards them with their expectations or fulfils  their needs. The culture of the organization is thus passed on to the new employees through the process of socialization. In other means, the new employees will come to know the culture of the organization in which they work thus by interacting with the other people in the organization. Once formed, it is not an easy task to change the culture whenever possible. This is because cultural change basically requires the people to change their behaviour. It is quite difficult for the people to change their old way of doing things and go into do new things all at once. It has to keep on changing gradually overtime with lot of effort put in.

However, the organizational culture may differ from one organization to another. For example, the culture of a hospital or university is quite different to the culture of a bank. This is because the culture of an organization is quite visible to some extent through their arrangement of furniture, how things are organized, what the people wear and what they talk about etc. Having said that, some organizations have weak cultures while some have strong cultures.  Let us  go look at each of the two types of culture in a bit more detail.

What is a Weak Organizational Culture?

A weak organizational culture is when the people in the organization do not agree on the same basic beliefs and values as applies to the organization, and in stead they tend to have their very own ideas, beliefs and behaviours etc. As a result, the people are controlled by way of using restricted rules, procedures, supervision and bureaucracy within the organization. On one hand, a weak culture may be the result of many subcultures. In other means, a weak culture would rather encourage individual thought and contributions.

To say, this type of culture would be better for an organization that tends to grow throw innovative ideas, and only if the people in the organization could at least have a common goal and help the management to come up with plans for the future,  even their ideas may be different. For example, different departments may have different sub cultures with different believes and ideas but still they should all work for a goal such as helping the organization to grow. But at the same time, if the people  in the group think individually having different goals in mind, then this will no doubt lead to conflicts or cause problems between the people and the management. If this happens, then of course the organization falls into a situation of failure because of the different sub groups trying to fulfil separate goals rather than a common goal. It should be said that weak cultures are easily changeable as they are not stable and the organizations with weak cultures are usually considered to be in efficient and less effective at most times. This is mainly due to the restricted rules, supervision and bureaucracy carried out within the organization.

What is a Strong Organizational Culture?

The  culture of an organization is considered to be strong when the majority of people in the organization tends to hold the same basic beliefs and values as applies to the organization. In other words, it could also be said that an organization has a deep rooted strong culture when the employees respond strongly to the values and thus passes it on successfully to the rest of people. Having said that, a strong culture in particular has many advantages. To say,

A strong culture basically paves way to attract people with talent. What actually means by this is that the talented people in general do go in search of organizations that they think would help them to fulfil what they expect such as better salaries etc. With a strong culture they believe that the organization is in a better position to achieve all those.  The talented people would basically prefer to work for an organization with a strong culture rather than trying to find out places elsewhere. This actually reduces the amount of talented people leaving the organization to a greater extent.  Now a days what people really want is to get engaged in their work and do it with responsibility etc. Hence so, a strong culture do paves the way for people to take the responsibility and work rather than trying to control them with rules and regulation, supervision etc. It is rather important for people to be able to work together and maintain their relationships with the rest of the organization if the organization is to succeed. A strong culture basically helps the people to get to know each other better which will eventually lead to new ideas and greater productivity.  People working in the organization usually find work to be hard and frustrating most of the time. But with a strong culture that is attractive there is no doubt that the people find the work to be interesting and enjoying, which will also pave way eventually to achieve the goals of the organization.

However, in spite of all the advantages, there are times when a strong culture may not exactly be the culture that is needed when it comes to facing the competitive environment. This is because the organization may have to come up with many innovative ideas in order to face the competition rather than sticking on to the old ways of doing things. To say, if the people in the organization are completely following the values and beliefs of the existing culture when it comes to achieving the goals, then they obviously lack the opportunities to think in a much creative or innovative way in order to come up with unique solutions or ideas to face the ever changing turbulent environment.  This is because they all think no beyond than their existing culture. This is basically a draw back in the strong culture. Too, a strong culture is indeed difficult to change at times of need, and needs a lot of effort to do so because people once adapted to the old way of doing things it is unlikely that they are willing to change their behaviour unlike in a weak culture.

Conclusion

It should be said that organization culture may be different from one organization to another. Meaning to say that, some organizations will have strong cultures while the other may have weak cultures. A strong culture is when the majority of people tends to agree on the existing beliefs and values and beliefs in the organization, meaning to so that there is one dominant culture in spite the other sub cultures that exists.  On the other hand a weak culture is when the majority of people disagree on the existing culture but instead forms their own sub cultures.

Having said that, it is also important to keep in mind that no culture can be the right culture. Even though many tend to believe that an organization should have a strong culture in order to survive, it is true to a greater extent but not always. This is because it is indeed vital to always keep of watch of the competitive environment thus because the existing culture may not be suitable for the competitive environment at times. For example, when it comes to facing the competition it more or less needs an organization culture that is open for more innovative ideas. In other words, the organizational culture must fit with the competitive environment and the organization in order to meet the goals. As a result, there is no right or wrong  culture. But the one that suits an organization  best is a combination of both the cultures meaning to say that  a strong culture that is open for the people to express  their very own (new) ideas. In other words a culture that is agreed by the majority of people but still respects the innovative ideas of the people at times of need.

 

Spa Covers asked:


Where is my spa cover? Ever have to ask yourself this question after a wind storm? I have had people tell me they have found their cover a quarter mile from their home. I do not know how they knew it was their cover. Maybe in some parts of the country people write things on their spa covers to help them recover them after a storm. I suppose you could write, If Found Please Call, on the bottom. Maybe, Hope This Spa Cover Did Not Land On Your Sister.

Personally I think it might be time for a different type of spa cover. I found a posting on a spa cover dealers website claiming that they had several covers that made it through Hurricane Katrina. That is a little like saying there were some calvary survivors after Custers last stand. There is a big difference between having some going undamaged and having no losses.

The question to ask is are they selling anything different? So far I have found stronger straps as their solution. Well you could build a solid roof that attaches to the spa but in case you did not notice solid roofs were flying right off houses. The answer is not stronger tie downs for the wing you use to cover your spa but get rid of the wing.

Find a design that does not offer a rigid surface for the wind to lift on. The reason rigid foam spa covers fly is that they make a good wing. Our armed services fly planes with less aerodynamics than the typical rigid foam spa cover.

What causes a spa cover to fly? When wind comes at the spa, some of it hits the side of the cabinet and has to go around. As the air is pushed around the spa it some of it goes up over. As it breaks over the top of the rigid foam cover it starts a little ripple or swirl action that begins to **** upward on the rigid surface. Like when your riding in a convertible, if you have hair like I used to, it does not blow backward like you expect but forward because of the windshield diverting the air flow. If you had no windshield your hair would be blown straight back. This swirl action pulls the foam cover up off the spa.

It does not need to move it very much, just enough to create enough of a gap for some of the air to get under the cover. The second reason rigid foam spa covers fly is they have a nice air space between them and the water surface they are supposed to be keeping warm. Once air starts to flood into this air space it creates pressure. The air rushing in can not push down on the water so it takes the only thing it can move, the spa cover. Once this action starts it is only a matter of what velocity is required before lift off occurs. The first movement of the flying spa cover is straight up.

The pressure in the space between the water of the spa and the bottom of the cover pops the cover straight up. It takes a lot less force than you might think because it is lifting on the entire bottom area of the rigid foam cover at once. Even a saturated rigid foam spa cover that is too heavy for one person to lift will fly when the air is pushing on the entire bottom surface. Once a heavy spa cover gets airborne watch out because anything it runs into is going to get damaged.

So are these spa cover dealers offing anything different? Are they offering a spa cover that is not designed like a wing? Are they selling a spa cover that does not require straps and truck ratchets to secure it to the spa? I propose looking for a different kind of spa cover.

The internet has put the world at your finger tips. Instead of settling for the same old thing, shop the web for a design that makes sense. Look for a design that does not use a rigid foam board resting across the top of the spa. A better design would rest right on the water surface first because the water is what you intend to keep warm and second because this would remove the void that would build up pressure to pop the cover off. If the flexible and dome shaped rather than flat and rigid it would resist lift and deflect even the strongest winds. If you are tired of worrying about your spa cover every time the wind blows, you owe it to yourself to find a better spa cover.

Dr.N.C.MARTIN,Ph.D asked:


ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

 Dr.N.C.Martin, Ph.D

Lecturer – HOD

Department of Social Work

Shree Chandra Prabhu Jain College

                                                                                                           Minjur, Chennai.

 

Introduction

A noted scholar recently assessed downsizing as “probably the most pervasive yet understudied phenomenon in the business world” (Cameron, 1994). While we have become numbed by the near daily accounts of new layoffs, a New York Times national survey finding is perhaps more telling: since 1980, a family member in one-third of all U.S. households has been laid off (New York Times, 1996). By some measures, downsizing has failed abjectly as a tool to achieve the main raison d’etre, reduced costs. According to a Wyatt Company survey covering the period between 1985 and 1990, 89 percent of organizations which engaged in downsizing reported expense reduction as their primary goal, while only 42 percent actually reduced expenses. Downsizing for the sake of cost reduction alone has been castigated intellectually as short-sighted and neglectful of what resources will be needed to increase the revenue stream of the future (Hamel and Prahalad, 1994).

A truer and fuller understanding of the forces shaping and thrusting downsizing forward today comes from an appreciation of increased global competition; changing technologies, which in turn are profoundly impacting the nature of work; increasing availability of a contingent work force (Fierman, 1994); and shifting balance of power among organizational constituents away from rank and file employees and in the direction of shareholders and the chief executives who serve as their proxy. When we conceptualize downsizing within these broader frameworks, it becomes clear that we are speaking of downsizing both as a response to and as a catalyst of organizational culture change.

This article will later provide a formal definition of “organizational culture”. For the moment, it is suggested that culture is to an organization what personality is to an individual. As with personality, change takes time and may be hard to discern, especially for persons inside the organization. This article will argue that, ultimately, the most prominent effects of downsizing will be in relation to culture change, not in relation to saved costs or short-term productivity gains. Key drivers of organizational culture will tend to shape an organization’s approach to downsizing. For whose benefit does the organization exist? What are the basic assumptions among people who work in the organization? What are the basic assumptions the organization and the employee make in relation to each other?

Establishing a direct link between downsizing and organizational culture is not an easy matter, however, as the following example will demonstrate. The Chief Executive Officer of Apple Computer recently bought himself more time with disgruntled shareholders by promising to take forceful action on a number of fronts, including downsizing. The executive cited “five crises: lack of cash; declining quality; a failed operating system development project; Apple’s chaotic culture; and a fragmented strategy” (Markoff, 1997). How do you connect downsizing, which is one of a number of actions being taken, with corporate culture, which is only one of a number of “crises” being solved in a manner and to a level that establishes a positive relationship?

Another reason that it is difficult to draw a specific link between downsizing and organizational culture is that there are many different variations and approaches to downsizing. A distinction has been made between proactive downsizing, which is planned in advance and usually integrated with a larger set of objectives, and reactive downsizing, which would be typified by cost-cutting as a last resort after a prolonged period of inattention to looming problems by management (Kozlowski et. al., 1991). Work force reductions can range from forceful in nature, i.e., involuntary reductions, to the milder approaches, such as resignation incentives and job sharing (Sutton and D’Aunno, 1989). There are different ways of deciding “who stays, who goes” from the outwardly arbitrary to criterion-based (Brockner, 1992). There are different modes of planning, ranging from secretive sessions to open discussions and solicitation of ideas from employees. There are different standards of notice of terminations, including relatively harsh same day terminations as well as more generous 90 day or longer notices. There are even differences in intentionality, i.e., reductions can be planned to present employees with as little a break as possible from what they have known in the past or they can be designed to be deliberately disruptive to the status quo (Noer, 1993).

Organizational Culture Defined

It has been observed with respect to the concept of “power” that its omnipresence makes it difficult to usefully apply in specific situations (Pfeffer, 1981). The same may be said of “culture”. If it is everywhere, and pervades every aspect of our existence, then how can it be subject to analysis. Schein (1992) offers at least a partial solution. He divides organizational culture into three levels: 1) at the surface are “artifacts”, those aspects (such as dress) which can be easily discerned, yet are hard to understand; 2) beneath artifacts are “espoused values” which are conscious strategies, goals and philosophies; 3) the core, or essence, of culture is represented by the basic underlying assumptions and values, which are difficult to discern because they exist at a largely unconscious level, yet provide the key to understanding why things happen the way they do. These basic assumptions form around deeper dimensions of human existence such as the nature of humans; human relationships and activity; reality; and truth.

Schein (1992) himself acknowledges that, even with rigorous study, we can only make statements about elements of culture, not culture in its entirety. The approach which Schein recommends for inquiring about culture is an iterative, clinical approach, similar to a therapeutic relationship between a psychologist and a patient. Schein’s disciplined approach to culture stands in contrast to the almost flippant way in which culture is referred to in some of the popular management literature.

Culture Change

Changing an organization is messy, complicated business. A study by Kotter and Heskett (1992) indicated that culture change becomes tougher as organizations become more established and successful. The very bases for a company’s earlier success can be hindrances to needed changes under new and different scenarios from those which existed previously.

Prevailing models provide uncertain guideposts. For example, it is standard fare within the leadership literature (e.g., Bennis, 1994) to depict the need for a “vision” of a desired future state of the enterprise. What if elements of a vision clash with each other? What if a leader, for example, decides to embrace a total quality management culture built upon trust among all parties and, at the same time, embarks upon a series of layoffs which are likely to engender distrust among those same parties? The conventional wisdom in response is to acknowledge that there will be sadness and losses and a murky period which goes under the heading of “the neutral zone”; but, in the end, there will be “new beginnings” (Bridges, 1981). How long does the neutral zone last? Existing research provides no solid answers. How long will a leader with a vision wait for the culture to change in positive ways? Research supports the idea that culture change is a multi-year effort (Schein, 1992).

If we broaden our conceptualization of culture change to include both intended consequences (planned change) and unintended consequences (unplanned change), then it is at least possible to be confident that downsizing is a catalyst for culture change. Organizational theorists from Lewin (1951) forward, including Argyris (1992) have insisted upon the need for a destabilizing element in any change process. The existing status quo is conceptualized as a dynamic in which forces resisting change and forces pushing for change have found a balance. In order to shift the balance (in the favor of change), the situation needs to be “unfrozen”. In other words, people have to be rocked out of their comfortable existence, so they will be alerted to the need for change.

Downsizing qualifies as a destabilizer of status quo ante even under circumstances where departures are voluntary. Hickok (1995), for example, documented symptoms of survivor illness at an Air force installation that had, up to the point of the research, experienced only voluntary departures. The literature is replete with examples of burnout, depression, anger, and betrayal as common responses by survivors of layoffs (e.g., Noer, 1993; Brockner, 1992). Not all responses are negative: there are reports of people getting “charged up”, finding new excitement in their work, being challenged by the prospect of “doing more with less” or saving the organization (e.g., Noer, 1993). Hickok (1995) found that “implementors” of layoffs (i.e, those “pulling the strings”) had more positive reactions than did “implementees” (i.e., those who were having the layoffs “done to them”).

In any event, it should be acknowledged that downsizing has altered the rule of the employment “game”. The way these changes have tended to be theoretically euphemized is by indicating that the “psychological contract” between employers and employees has been violated (Rousseau, 1995). No longer can the employer offer job security. The “new” psychological contract being marketed is conditional employment, with the availability of training and development opportunities to help keep employees “employable”, even if not at this particular company (e.g., Tichy and Sherman, 1994; Waterman, Waterman, and Collard, 1994).

From a broader cultural perspective, downsizing can be seen as the embodiment of the “creative destruction” inherent in capitalism. As Schumpeter (1950) wrote about capitalism, downsizing may not be pretty to watch and people will get hurt for sure, but this is the way the market takes care of itself. There is no entitlement to a job any more than there is entitlement for a corporation to exist. People, as well as organizations, need to gear up to compete in the marketplace. Bridges (1994) and others warn anyone within hearing distance that only the foolish will let their fates be decided by those they work for; the wise ones will think and act like entrepreneurs even if they fall under the label “employees”.

The symbolic aspects of culture change associated with downsizing should not be overlooked. The very act of downsizing creates an appearance of leadership that is taking charge. In the instance of the United States government, for example, Clinton-Gore make the claim that by eliminating 272,900 federal jobs they have reduced the cost of government. The symbolism associated with the change may weigh more heavily in people’s minds than the costs, which may include contracting out at a much higher price for services previously provided in-house.

The political aspects of culture change associated with downsizing are also quite dramatic. Downsizing represents a power shift in the direction of top management and shareholders. One way of conceptualizing the change is via expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964). The unsaid message is that management is not afraid to decide who “has a future” with this organization and who does not. The message is “if you want to continue to work here, you will have to work harder, be more responsive, be more of a team player, etc.

There are “Theory X” and/or “Theory Y” dynamics (McGregor, 1960) at work with downsizing as well, depending upon the circumstances. The underlying theme of Theory X thinking is that workers can not be trusted to put forth effort on their own. They need to be externally motivated by the threat of punishment in order to put out their best efforts. Of all the downsizing practices, the one most closely associated with Theory X is the practice of giving people no termination notice. In spite of what would seem the obvious inhumanity of walking people who have worked for an organization for twenty or more years straight to the door, this remains a common corporate downsizing practice. The assumption which would seem to underlie the practice is that people will use notice time to undermine the organization or at least to be unproductive.

From a Theory Y perspective, downsizing may be seen as a way to free up workers to do the good work they care to do. The analysis which precedes downsizing is designed with the intent of reducing unnecessary or low value work, minimizing bureaucratic controls, and eliminating unneeded communications layers. Downsizing intent, from a Theory Y perspective, is to enable workers to be challenged by interesting work and to have the opportunity to produce extraordinary results which are aligned with the organization’s mission and goals.

Connecting the Literature

It has been commented that the literature on downsizing is disjointed and uneven (Kozlowski et. Al., 1993). Cameron (1994:183) identifies, in particular, a lack of empirical data at the organizational level of analysis. Hickok (1995) has identified important insights to be gained both from literature at the organizational level (i.e., focused on strategy, policy, or decision-making) and at the organizational/individual interface level (i.e., concerned with impact of individual and group-level thoughts, feelings, and behaviors on organizational functioning).

Organizational Level Analysis

The primary thrust of organizational level analysis is to emphasize the need to plan, analyze and implement downsizing carefully and within the framework of organizational purpose (e.g., Cascio, 1993; Greengard, 1993). Downsizing is framed within the context of improving and streamlining work processes, as exemplified by total quality management and reengineering (e.g., Cameron, 1991). Key assumptions include a mechanistic notion of organizations, in which the parts are examined to improve fit with the whole. Organizational survival is seen as paramount (e.g., the first order of business is for organizations to thrive and be competitive). Key mental shifts involve development of a “customer first” attitude (stated as part of a total quality management approach) and a realignment of importance among stakeholders, with shareholders coming first (largely unstated).

In one of the key early works on downsizing, Tomasko (1987) identifies corporate cultures based on mistrust as a leading cause of excessive staffing. American corporate culture, he contends, rewards winners, not losers; places control at the top of the agenda; and causes people to believe that it is better to hide mistakes than admit them. In consequence, staff groups (such as planning departments) are formed to serve as watchdogs. Managers respond by attempting to gain control of ever more bloated corporate bureaucracies. Tomasko’s solution is a flatter, leaner organization in which a team environment prevails and people trust each other to contribute to common goals.

Cameron et al (1991) conducted the most extensive single study of downsizing to date in terms of number of organizations involved, breadth of investigation, and time span. The authors conducted a four year longitudinal study of 30 organizations in the automotive industry. Their viewpoint was that downsizing is a necessary and affirmative approach to becoming more competitive, and an appropriate response to the disproportionate growth in the white-collar work force over recent decades. The successful companies in their study did not only reduce the work force, but also engaged in organizational redesign and systematic efforts at quality improvement. Successful companies engaged in downsizing as a purposeful and proactive strategy. Interestingly, only a handful of companies in their study were found to have improved organizational performance.

Two studies of change at major U.S. corporations - Xerox (Kearns and Nadler, 1992) and General Electric (GE) (Tichy and Sherman, 1994) deal explicitly with culture change. Tichy and Sherman refer to a revolution at GE; part of that revolution, under Jack Welch, was to eliminate almost 170,000 positions. One of the basic assumptions at GE: “The ultimate test of leadership is enhancing the long-term value of the organization. For leaders of a publicly held corporation, this means long-term shareholder value” (p.367). GE turned against the notion of lifetime employment in favor of a stated goal of providing employees with the best training and development opportunities, but only conditional employment. Xerox also resorted to massive layoffs. Like GE, this downsizing was framed within the larger picture of adopting a total quality management culture. Kearns believed that the number one key to success was shifting focus outward to the customer.

The Kearns and Nadler book and the Tichy and Sherman book lucidly address the process of culture change management, and they explicitly state what many will not: that part of the intentional aspect of downsizing in the midst of culture change is the infliction of pain on at least some to get the attention of all. Tichy and Sherman talk of avoiding the “boiled frog phenomenon” (p.400) in which frogs boil to death while the water slowly changes from cold to boiling. Kearns and Nadler conclude (p.280): “You also have to create dissatisfaction with the status quo. Otherwise, why are people going to work hard to disrupt it? And you can not wait around until everyone feels induced pain from the marketplace, because then it’s too late. So you need to have induced pain. You need to throw a few punches here and there”.

There are some organizational level analyses which dissent from the litany of praise for downsizing. Handy (1990) argues that an organization does not exist only for profits; that is, profits should be viewed as a means to other desired ends rather than as the sole end. His view is that shareholders have taken over too much of the power. They should, instead, be only one element of a hexagonal ring of stakeholders - which also includes employees, the environment, community, and suppliers. Petruno (1996) reflects the concern that institutional shareholder activists have gotten too greedy and imposed too large a price on the thousands upon thousands of employees who have lost their jobs; performance increases may be at the expense of hollowed out companies. Hamel and Prahalad (1994) do not question the legitimacy of downsizing, but argue that time spent on determining core competencies and relating those competencies to the external marketplace is time much better spent than restructuring and reengineering; the latter may shore up your current position, but does little to prepare you to compete in the future.

Downs (1995) offers an even harsher critique. Downs decries the prevalence and public acceptance of a “culture of narcissism”, in which corporations have only one objective, profit. He contrasts the view of Hewlett-Packard’s David Packard that the secret to successful management was to keep in balance the triangular interests of shareholders, management, and employees. Part of this narcissism is reflected in the increase of senior executive salaries by 1,000 percent between 1980 and 1995, the same period of time in which record layoffs were amassed. In a Newsweek cover story, Sloan (1996: 44) argues that “Firing people has gotten to be trendy in corporate America, in the same way that building new plants and being considered a good corporate citizen gave you bragging rights 25 years ago. Now you fire workers — especially white-collar workers — to make your corporate ‘bones’”.

 

Organizational/ Individual Level Analysis

The analysis at the organizational/individual interface is primarily focused on documenting and ameliorating the effects of downsizing on those who remain within the organization. A stream of research, both laboratory and field, has provided documentation of the harmful effects downsizing can have on “survivors”; these effects have been described in terms of lower morale (e.g., Armstrong-Stassen, 1993), high stress (e.g., Leana and Feldman, 1992), and a “syndrome” marked by anger, envy, and guilt (e.g., Noer, 1993). The perceived fairness of the downsizing is considered a key mediating variable (e.g., Brockner, 1992), as is the effectiveness of the communication of information (e.g., Bridges, 1987).

Key underlying assumptions include: 1) the pre-eminence of the organization over the individual, accompanied by a strong argument that the organization cannot reach its full potential without maximizing the effective use of human resources; 2) reliance upon the Lewin’s three step approach of unfreezing, moving to a new level, and freezing at a new level; as illustrated by the Xerox and GE cases described above, Lewin argued that to “break open the shell of complacency, it is sometimes necessary to bring about a deliberate emotional stir-up” (Lewin, 1951:229); 3) reliance upon psychological transition models, especially as put forward by Bridges (1991); Bridges theorizes three overlapping phases of transition - the ending of what was, a messy “neutral zone”, or limbo, and a new beginning; 4) the end of the old implicit “psychological contract” assuring lifetime job security as long as the employee “keeps his or her nose clean” and does an adequate job and formulation of a new contract in which employees are more autonomous and self-reliant (e.g., Bridges, 1994).

Brockner and colleagues have studied the “fairness” of layoffs from a procedural justice perspective and have shown a link between perceived fairness of the layoffs and survivor commitment to the organization (e.g., Brockner et al, 1994). Among the fairness factors which Brockner examines is the connection with existing corporate culture. Organizations such as IBM and Digital Equipment which have traditionally had a policy of averting layoffs are likely to be perceived by employees as violating the psychological contract and therefore as more unfair when they do resort to layoffs.

Noer (1993) sees letting go of the old employment contract as tough but necessary. His view is that implicit lifetime employment guarantees are unhealthy both for individuals and organizations. They result in a sort of “organizational codependency” in which individuals invest enormous energy in trying to control the system and at the same time have much of their self-worth tied up in trying to live up to the organization’s, not their own, values. In a similar vein, Hecksher (1995) concludes that management loyalty to the organization is no longer needed; what is needed is more professionalism, evidenced by creative contributions to the organization. Bridges (1994) goes even further; he sees a secular trend away from the traditional job, with security, job description, etc. Like Noer, he sees greater possibility for individuals to achieve autonomy and satisfaction by taking responsibility for their own futures.

Work relationships can become much more testy during periods of organizational decline. That can take the form of “backstabbing, placing of blame, and overt failure to cooperate” (Mohrman and Mohrman, 1983:459). Hickok (1995) analyzed interview responses at two downsizing military bases and found that mentions of increased conflict in the workplace were significantly greater than the more positive mentions of pulling together.

When I was an MBA student, as part of a management course I had the opportunity to conduct a “culture assessment” at the organization where I was working. The organization was somewhat new to me–I had been hired as a senior manager only a year before–and the ability to quantify and analyze the organizational culture was a new concept to me.

As an employee in any type of organization can attest, organizational culture is as prevalent and as varied as individuals themselves. Organizational culture is enduring and complex, and may have both a positive and a negative effect on the staff and the workplace. In many ways culture will determine the survival of an organization over the long term, especially in volatile industries.

 

Cultures that can be a liability to an organization include those that create barriers to change, create barriers to diversity or barriers to mergers and acquisitions. (Stephen P. Robbins. Organizational Behavior, 8th ed., 602-603.)

Understanding the organizational culture can help you to understand why change does not take place, or why a project fails. It will also help you to determine where to strive to make changes to the culture.

As managers and library leaders, why do we need to get a sense of the prevailing organizational culture? It is essential to understand the organizational culture if you want to make changes to how work is done, what type of work is being done, or at the broadest level, to affect the organization’s standing in its industry. Understanding the culture and, as required, changing it, can mean the difference between attracting and retaining good employees and driving away the best employees with an environment that doesn’t encourage, challenge, or reward them.

The organizational culture assessment that I participated in didn’t provide any surprises regarding the existing culture–most people with any level of sensitivity can get a sense of what type of culture is prevalent in an organization. What was surprising were the results from the survey to determine what type of culture staff would prefer to see the organization develop.

As background, the organization had just gone through a major change. The executive director had departed after 20 years; there had been a period of several months with an acting ED followed by a new, external ED appointment. The assessment took place only a month after the new ED was in position.

Types of Culture

The assessment we used to assess the organization’s culture used questions that sought to determine and enumerate such organizational traits as symbols (such as images, things, events), organizational-espoused values and beliefs (for example, the mission statement, constitution, espoused goals of the ED, slogans). Then the espoused beliefs and values were compared with the symbols and culture identified through the written survey and staff interviews.

The written survey asked staff to answer questions related to the current culture and then asked how they would like to see the culture change. Responses were tabulated to determine which type of culture existed among the four metrics of organizational culture: hierarchy, adhocracy, clan, and market.

The hierarchy aspect of an organization refers to how structured, inflexible, and process-driven an organization is in the way it operates. At the opposite end of the scale, adhocracy refers to how flexible, informal, innovative, and dynamic an organization is. A clan culture supports a very friendly and social environment in which to work, while a market culture is often found in organizations that are results-oriented and sales-driven.

The assessment determined that the existing culture was very hierarchical and quite clannish. The staff also indicated, through the anonymous written survey, that they would prefer the culture to be more adhocratic and less hierarchical, while at the same time being slightly more market culture and clannish. This showed the positive and optimistic view of the staff towards change.

The process I used for assessing the culture involved conducting group employee interviews and written staff surveys, followed by analysis of the information. Staff responded to a series of prompts and questions regarding organizational symbols, organizational-espoused values, and beliefs. These responses were analyzed, creating a pattern showing comparisons between espoused belief/values (in the form of phrases or statements) with their associated symbols (both positive and negative), and related culture types (hierarchy, adhocracy, clan, and market).

[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

For a new leader or manager, understanding the organizational culture that is in place is essential for success in providing direction, especially when the direction is different from what has come before. Are staff willing and eager to take on new challenges and to follow a new direction, or will they provide passive or active resistance to any changes? What is important to people today, based on their view of where the organization is and where it should be? Where are there disconnects between espoused values, such as the mission statement, and the over symbols and culture type?

For example, if the organization’s mission is to provide expert customer service, yet the strong hierarchical structure means that employees are not empowered to assist customers by providing creative solutions or don’t have the required authority to provide responses or results, there is a disconnect.

The organization that I surveyed was eager to see positive change and the time was right for providing impetus to staff to follow a new path. The assessment can reveal the opposite, however, which is just as valuable to managers or library leaders. If there is resistance to change, if the espoused values of the organization don’t match with the staff perceptions and prevailing culture, you must try to change the culture or change the objectives and mission to reflect reality.

Conclusion

It is difficult to write with authority about the relationship of downsizing to organizational culture, in part because these are both subject areas in need of clarification and empirical research. It is intuitively evident, even definitional, that a leader’s cultural mind set will have a great deal to do with whether and how downsizing is implemented in an organization. It also seems, beyond question, that downsizing acts as an organizational destabilizer and thus as a catalyst for culture change. Whether resultant cultural change is beneficial to the organization as a whole is open to speculation. Because downsizing is a relatively recent phenomenon at the white-collar level, time will have to differentiate between short-term effects and reactions and the longer-term consequences. Perhaps less bloated bureaucracies will free people to get more work done and to interact more positively. Perhaps a whole generation of management thinkers overstated the value of loyalty and commitment that accrues over a long and stable employment tenure. That, again, will be for time to judge.

This article has noted three observations in relation to the impact of downsizing on organizational culture. First, it clearly appears that power has shifted away from rank-and-file employees in the direction of top management/ownership. Accompanying this change is a shift in emphasis away from the well-being of individuals in the direction of the pre-eminence and predominance of the organization as a whole. Second, it appears working relationships have changed away from being “familial” in the direction of being more competitive. Third, the employer-employee relationship has moved away from long-term and stable in the direction of short-term and contingent.

It was argued in this article that decisions associated with a downsizing action may tend either to be culturally “reinforcing” (i.e., less disruptive, more individual control) or culturally “destabilizing” (i.e., likely to induce pain). Key downsizing practices were categorized by which of these they were more generally associated.

Finally, the author suggested five simple question areas that organizational leaders who are interested in probing the moral and spiritual dimensions of downsizing might usefully consider. These include ensuring the fundamental decency of the approach being considered, engaging in appropriate dialogue, thinking through the consequences for those who may be adversely affected, having ready explanations for multiple constituencies, and offering a realistic opportunity for a better future for the organization and the organization’s stakeholders.

References

American Management Association (1994). 1994 survey on downsizing.

Bennis, W. (1989). On becoming a leader. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Bridges, W. (1987). Managing transitions. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Bridges, W. (1988). Surviving the survivor syndrome. William Bridges and Associates (pamphlet, 14 pages).

Cameron, K.S. (Summer 1994). Guest editor’s note: “Investigating organizational downsizing–fundamental issues,” Human Resources Management 33(2), pp. 183-188.

Cameron, K.S., Freeman, S.J., and Mishra, A.K. (1991). “Best practices in white-collar downsizing: Managing contradictions,” Academy of Management Executive 5(3), pp. 57-72.

Cascio, W. (1993). “Downsizing: What do we know? What have we learned?” Academy of Management Executive 7(1), pp. 95-104.

Downs, A. (1995). Corporate executions. NY: AMACOM (225 pages).

Fierman, J. (January 24 1994). “The contingency work force,” Fortune, pp. 30-36.

Greengard, S. (November 1993). “Don’t rush downsizing: Plan, plan, plan,” Personnel Journal 72(11), 64-76.

Kotter, J. And Heskett, J. (1992). Corporate culture and performance. New York: The Free Press.

Kozlowski, S., Chao, G., Smith, E., and Hedlund, V. (1993). “Organizational downsizing: Strategies, interventions, and research implications,” International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology 8, pp. 263-332.

Leana, C. and Feldman, D.C. (1992). Coping with job loss: How individuals, .

Noer, D. (1993). Healing the wounds: Overcoming the trauma of layoffs and revitalizing downsized organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Rousseau, D. (1995). Psychological contracts in organizations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.

William Allan Kritsonis, PhD asked:


 

 

Oral History: A Viable Methodology for 21st Century

Educational Administration Research: National Impact

 

_______________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT

 

This article identifies three 21st Century realities that are redefining research in educational administration:  1) the increasing need for relevancy and authenticity in addressing community and school problem solving contexts; 2) the need for a research method that permits the kind of in depth interviewing of knowledgeable individuals with minimal Institutional Review Board (IRB) oversight; and 3) a methodology that can be facilitated by emerging technologies. Oral history has been employed in many disciplines but has seldom been used in educational administration. It offers some promise and the authors suggest possible uses and interpretations of one proposed oral history project and one completed oral history project.

______________________________________________________________________________

Purpose of the Article

 

            The purpose of this article is to examine oral history interviewing and historical research as a viable research method within the broad family of research methodologies in educational administration and educational leadership. The evolution of research methodology in educational administration has been influenced by changing paradigms, changing needs, increasing institutional Review Board (IRB) oversight, and changing technology. Educational administration research differs from other academic disciplines in that it involves the opportunity to find new and innovative uses for research findings for problem solving and decision making in school settings.

 

 

Research in Educational Administration Undergoing Transformation

 

            Educational administration research has undergone great transformation during the past century. Business management principles drawn from industry dominated the first half of the 20th Century of educational administration thought.  During the 1950’s and 1960’s various social science methods and concepts shaped a new generation of educational administration thought and research methodology (Campbell, Fleming, Newell & Bennion, 1987; Murphy, 2003, Fall). By the late 1980’s business and social science methodologies were supplemented though not replaced by qualitative methods drawn from anthropology.  Action research fills yet another educational administration research niche. It places less emphasis on formal theoretical constructs while focusing on authentic, campus-based data gathering, and problem-solving. This continuing growth in acceptance of research methodologies from other disciplines was described by Campbell, et al:

 

Educational administration is an applied field rather than an academic discipline. It does not draw upon a single body of literature nor use a single set of scholarly tools…an applied field must maintain a vital concern not only with the extension of knowledge but also with the improvement of practice…Similarly…an applied field must be concerned with problems in their totality – drawing on the methods of many disciplines. (1987, p. 3)

 

            Not all influences on educational administration research in the 21st Century have been methodological.  A national increase in Institutional Review Board (IRB) oversight has greatly influenced educational administration research (Herrington & Kritsonis, 2006).  There remains great variance among universities regarding the extent to which educational research is subject to IRB oversight. Some universities exempt educational studies from IRB oversight completely, especially those studies that were intended to examine quality improvement in educational institutions or action research used for classroom instruction. Some universities were requiring complete reviews of every aspect of research regardless of methodology or intended uses of the data. Navigating the maze of IRB restrictions at some institutions has led to avoidance of some research methodologies or populations and in some cases resulted in diminished research activity altogether (Herrington & Kritsonis, 2006).

            Technology has made most forms of research far more convenient and achievable. For example more user-friendly Windows or UNIX based statistical software programs such as Stat-Pac, (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), and SAS have replaced hand-calculations, data punchcard readers, and mainframe versions of the statistical software. Qualitative researchers have access to coding software such as HyperRESEARCH 2.6, NVIVO 7, computer-assisted Qualitative Data Analysis (QAQDAS 07) to assist with high volume qualitative data coding capabilities. Audio and video recording equipment, imaging equipment, and related software continue to be developed for oral history recording, however, analog recordings continue to be preferred by most oral history professionals.

            The challenge for educational researchers in the 21st Century is to select a methodology that can provide a relevant context for examining education issues within specific contexts that are reliably and accurately preserved. The methodology must also yield a study that is achievable within a reasonable time frame, is affordable, and must satisfy ethical requirements or minimize the need for IRB scrutiny.

 

A  Methodology-in-Waiting

 

Charlton (1985) defined oral history as “the recording and preserving of planned interviews with selected persons able to narrate recollected memory and thereby aid the reconstruction of the past” (p.2). Baum (1978) defined oral history as:

 

1.      a tape recorded interview, or interviews, in  question-and-answer format,

2.      conducted by an interview who has some, and preferably the more the better, knowledge of the subject to be discussed,

3.      with a knowledgeable interview, someone who knows whereof he or she speaks from personal participation or observation (sometimes we allow a second-hand account),

4.       subjects’ of historical [or community] interest…

5.      accessible, eventually, in tapes and/or transcripts to a broad spectrum of researchers. (pp. 389-390)

 

            The value of oral history for educational researchers and practitioners is found in the background that can be provided by credible participants who are able to enrich understandings of the immediate problem-solving context or who can draw parallels with other contexts. Sometimes dramatic events or significant phenomena require giving voice to otherwise silent observers or constituencies that know the true nature of  the problem of interest, but who have never been consulted by historians or decision makers. For example, ethnographic shifts in recent years have created major cultural divides in communities and schools that challenge long held assumptions of teachers and administrators regarding their client student populations.

An example is found in formerly rural/now suburban high school campus that in 1995-2004 comparison revealed the following demographic changes in students and teachers. In 1995 only 17 percent of the students of this inner city campus were Hispanic, 15 percent were African American, 65 percent of students were Anglo. The teacher demographic representations were similar. Ten years later 67 percent of the students were Hispanic, 17 percent were African American, but only 16 of the students were Anglo. The teacher demographics remained relatively unchanged over the same 10 years.

            Conversations with parents, teachers, and administrators reveals that the unexpected demographic gaps that occurred during the preceding ten year period had resulted in an increase of racial tensions wherein teachers/student and teacher/parent conflicts occuring. The achievement of Hispanic students continued a downward spiral, attendance and dropouts were increasing, and disciplinary alternative educational placements were soaring.  These realities placed the district in jeopardy of losing its standing based on statewide criteria and NCLB standards.  This was a phenomenon that could be documented through oral history interviews and the results made available as a case for other districts. In this case a number of interventions might be possible in the short run but a comprehensive and effectively planned longer term plan informed by carefully conducted oral histories would provide some valuable context and community history of the community that can provide answers to working with all parties affected by the problem.

            Another example is the fact that during the 1960’s and 1970’s the educational and experiential cornerstones for the first generation of Mexican-American college and university presidents and chancellors in the state of Texas and the nation were being established within an educational and cultural environment of South Texas that was hostile to the aspirations and future advancement of Latinos (Herrington, 1993, August). What can be learned about the education and mentoring experiences of these highly successful individuals would be invaluable to educators and other minority individuals making career and education decisions.

These two very real scenarios though unrelated have some connectedness. There are lessons that the teachers and administrators at the high school undergoing dramatic demographic shifts (study proposed but not yet conducted) could learn from the South Texas study of successful Hispanic students who grew up in communities that 30 and 40 years earlier resembled their current demographic and cultural realities. Communities that are just beginning to face the realities of permanently altered demographic landscapes can learn a great deal from their South Texas predecessors, precisely because those experiences have been previously recorded and transcribed for future reference (Herrington, 1993, August). The thoughts and feelings of these successful Hispanic individuals regarding their experiences, parents, teachers, and mentors (many of whom were Anglo as well as Hispanic) are eloquently recorded and transcribed for posterity. Their stories reveal personal strategies and significant persons who once extended a helping hand.

            In both of these cases, oral history methodology presents perhaps the only way to preserve otherwise unobtainable information. Concerning oral history Hoffman (1974) wrote:

 

Its most important advantage…is that it makes possible the preservation of life experience of persons who do not have the …leisure to write their memoirs…Interviews with people who have been foot soldiers in various important movements of social change but have heretofore been unrecorded may now be preserved and hence their impact assessed. (p. 26)

 

 

The Role of History in Educational Reform

 

            Scholars have identified several uses for history in educational research. History can be instrumental in effecting social reform, predicting future trends, or in influencing practice through the training of educators (Borg & Gall, 1983). Comparing the work of historian to that of psychotherapist Borg, et al noted that history has a particularly liberating function for educators:

 

To Freud, neurosis is the failure to escape the past, the burden on one’s history. What is repressed  returns distorted and is eternally reenacted. The psychotherapist’s task is to help the patient reconstruct the past. In this respect the historian’s goal resembles that of the therapist – to liberate us from the burden of the past by helping us to understand it. (p. 802)

 

            It is our common understanding of history and the ability to learn from our shared past that distinguishes humans from all other creatures. Wector (1957, August) wrote:

           

Chimpanzee with a stack of empty boxes and a banana hanging out of reach soon learns by his own experience. But man alone learns from the experience of others. History makes this possible. In the broadest sense, all that we know is history. More strictly, it is the road map of the past. (p. 24)

 

History is our collective memory. The ability to utilize history and extract useful generalizations and theories is uniquely human. Without a record of the past we are left to navigate life’s course without the aid of those who have gone before us.

 In a cogent essay published posthumously, Kennedy (1964, February) provided several reasons for examining the historical record. He noted:

 

There is little that is more important…without [history]…[one] stands uncertain and defenseless before the world, knowing neither where he has come from nor where he is going. With such knowledge, he is no longer alone but draws a strength far greater than his own from the cumulative experience of the past and the cumulative vision of the future. (p.3)

 

 

Ethical Oversight of Oral History

And Technological Considerations

 

Historical research and particularly oral history interviewing provides context and clear precedents that can be explored and considered for educational policy as well as practice. Educational researchers and IRB board members might wince at the notion of preserving recorded interviews. Such practice seems to contradict ethical provisions safeguarding anonymity of research subjects.  This is where the difference between oral history interviewing and other methodologies is important. Unlike any other discipline or methodology, oral history interviewing requires the spoken words of a specifically named individual connected in time and place by means of recording data on audio tapes, video tapes, images, documents, and transcripts preserved so as to be accessible for historical verification (Dunaway, D.K. & Baum, 1984).

To address this ethics concern, the Organization of American Historians (OAH) and the Oral History Society (OHS) in October 2003 successfully petitioned the U.S. Office for Human Research Protection (OHRP), part of the Department of Health and Human Services, for a special ruling on oral history research interviewing. They were especially concerned with oral history projects that do not involve the type of research defined by HHS regulations. It was determined that some oral history projects may not fall under the “Common Rule” (45 CFR, part 46) that define research as “a systematic investigation, including research development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.”  According to the Organization of Oral Historians (2003, November):

 

This type of research involves standard questionnaires with large samples of individuals who remain anonymous, not the open-ended interviews with identifiable individuals who give their interviews with ‘informed consent’ that characterizes oral history. Only those oral history projects that conform to the regulatory definition of research will now need to submit their research protocols for IRB review. (p. 17)

 

An advantage of the oral history interview, therefore, if the study is carefully designed, is that IRB oversight has become far less restrictive than for other methodologies.

 

 

Concluding Remarks

 

In conclusion, oral history methodology is technology-intensive. Emerging 21st Century technologies as well as existing technologies continue to simplify and broaden the capabilities of the oral historian, both for gathering information and presenting information in a variety of formats. Digitizing voice, image, video, and text materials have greatly reduced the processing and production time for producing and presenting oral history findings.

Finally, oral history interviewing, more than ever before, has enormous potential for giving voice to silent but important players within the arenas of social change – including community and school. In order make any further changes in our school systems educational leaders and researchers have got to find ways to hear these previously unheard voices. Well designed studies that seek out these voices of individuals who have given informed consent can provide historically and contextually rich information specific to time and place with minimal IRB oversight. Finally, technology is rapidly expanding the repertoire of formats for archiving and presenting very useful and usable knowledge to drive school improvement.

 

References

 

Baum, W.K. (1978). The expanding role of the librarian in oral history. Library Lectures,

6, 33-43. In Dunaway, D.K. & Baum, W.K. (Eds.), Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology  pp. 387-406). Nashville, TN: American Association for State and Local History and the Oral History Association.

Borg, W.R. & Gall, M.D. (1983). Educational research (4th ed.). New York: Longman.

Campbell, R.F., Fleming, T., Newell, L.J. & Bennion, J.W. (1987). A history of thought

            and practice in educational administration. New York: Teachers College Press.

Charlton, T.C. (1985). Oral history for Texans (2nd ed.). Austin, Texas: Texas Historical

Commission.

Dunaway, D.K. & Baum (1984). Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology. Nashville,

TN: American Association for State and Local History and the Oral History Assocociation.

Herrington, D. E. (1993). Barriers, influences, and leadership challenges of selected

Mexican-American upper level administrators in South Texas public higher education, 1970 to 1990. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M Universi

Herrington, D.E.  & Kritsonis, W.  (2006). A national perspective for improving the

working relationship between educational researchers and Institutional Review Board members. National Forum for Educational Research Journal, 19(3), 1-5.

Organization of American Historians (2003, November). Oral history excluded from IRB

review. OAH Newsletter, 31(3), 17.

Wector, Dixon (1957, August). History and how to write it. American Heritage, 8(5), 24-       27, 87.

Spa Covers asked:


Has Mother Nature wrecked your spa cover? If you need a new spa cover because your old foam cover was damaged by the elements, consider something different. The typical rigid foam filled hot tub cover covered with vinyl is doomed to end up heavy or broken no matter how well you treat it.

No matter what you treat it with all vinyl is rated by hours outdoors. Really top quality marine grade vinyl is rated for 1500 hours outdoors. That equates to about one hundred days of sunshine. I know what you are thinking, why would anybody put vinyl on something that is meant to be used outside? But that is not even the most common failure of the typical rigid foam filled spa cover.

What generally happens before the vinyl falls apart is that the foam gets so heavy you can not lift your spa cover by yourself. No matter how it is wrapped and sealed inside the cover, the foam fills with water. What happens is the little air spaces in the foam that are supposed to help the foam insulate your spa get filled up moisture. Here is a tip why the whole foam cover is doomed, if you never put the cover on your spa, it would never get heavy. If you just took a brand new spa cover out and put it on your picnic table instead of your spa, the vinyl would fall apart before the cover got heavy.

Why? Because the hot spa water is way below the bottom of the rigid foam spa cover. Some of that warm spa water turns to steam and rises up. Steam molecules are smaller than water. The steam works its way into the little crevices and spaces in the foam where it condenses back into liquid. If you live in an area that gets snow, the snow will land on the saturated foam and freeze the water inside it.

How? because just as heat rises, cold sinks. When it comes in direct contact with the foam it freezes the moisture. The warm spa water is not in direct contact with the bottom of the spa cover so it is in a loosing battle trying to beat the cold. The steam rises from the water, hits the bottom of the now frozen spa cover, condenses and falls back into the water below working like a radiator to actually cool the water.

You may look out at the snow piled on your frozen spa cover and think you have great insulation. But you would be wrong. Snow sits perfectly on a frozen pond too. It does not mean the pond water is still warm. So why does anybody still sell rigid foam covers? Well two reasons really. First, it has been the standard of the industry for nearly thirty years. When the acrylic spa began to be sold in the states, it needed to be covered with something to keep the debris out and to assist in keeping the water warm. Foam boards covered with vinyl was cheap and since everybody was selling the same thing it was all they needed to offer. Remember definition of insanity is to do the same thing over and over expecting a different outcome.

The second reason is worse in my opinion. Spa dealers know that the cover they are sending you home with will need to be replaced again because it will end up the same as the one you are replacing now. They know that like clockwork every couple years you are going to need to get another cover if you intend on using your spa on a regular basis.

So what are your choices? Thanks to the internet you now have the world at your finger tips. Look on line for a different kind of spa cover. Find a spa cover that is not covered with vinyl that is rated by hours if your spa is outdoors. There are Spa Covers available factory direct that do not use rigid foam that is just going to end up to heavy to lift. If you plan on using your spa for the rest of your life like I do, you owe it to yourself to get a better kind of spa cover.

Mil Incorporated asked:


What is history and why is it dangerous?

Your computer (well, actually the programs on your computer) track and save many of your actions. For example Windows remembers which programs you have started, Internet Explorer remembers which websites you have visited, Google Toolbar remembers the words that you have searched for, and so on. These traces of your computer activity are commonly known as history.

Contrary to the popular belief that this is done in order to harm you as part of some sort of worldwide conspiracy, history is actually used for the purpose of making your computer experience more convenient. However, as in many other cases, the good things can be used for bad purposes. In this case the information about your computer habits can be used from someone to gather very private information about yourself and to harm you, your work, your business, or your family. The privacy threats include many more things than history. Nevertheless, history is one of the most obvious traces and is very easy to abuse.

What kinds of history are there?

There are generally two types of history: the first one is created by Windows, Internet Explorer or other parts of the operating system; and the second one is created by other applications (such as Media Player, Google Toolbar, Google Desktop, etc.). The second type is covered in the next chapter of this article.

The most important type of history is the Internet history that is created by Internet Explorer (from now on we will call it IE), which records every page that you have visited on the Internet. In order to see this history start Internet Explorer and select View -> Explorer Bar -> History. This will open a narrow window in the left side of the main IE window, which shows the pages that you have opened in the past.

The second type of history is Windows search history. It can be seen if you open the Search results window. To do that you need to click Start menu -> Search.

The next types of history are the Start menu Run history and Start menu most frequently used programs.

There are other types of history but all of them are associated with specific applications.

Applications history:

The first type of application history is called Common file dialog history. Almost every application has some sort of open/save features and most of the applications use the Windows-provided dialogs for these operations. This ensures that open/save dialogs of most programs are very similar to each other. However here comes the bad news - Windows records the names of the files that you open or save. Even if these names do not show in the file open/save dialog of particular application, they are still recorded and can be viewed from someone who knows where to look for them.

Now, let’s take a look at the Media Player history items. First, there is a list of most recently opened files in the File menu of Media Player. Second, each played file is remembered in the default playlist.

Google Toolbar, Google Deskbar, Yahoo toolbar and ICQ toobar all have a special type of search history that records the words that you have searched for.

How to delete history?

Deleting of all history traces is very hard task that can not be done manually because most of them are stored in system areas that are not directly accessible from the user. Also the history traces are so many and they are scattered at so many places that their manual deletion would be very long and tedious work with high probability of mistakes that could lead to privacy holes or even render your computer unusable.

Mil Shield is a powerful privacy protection program that was designed specifically to delete all types history that are described in this article; to clean and shred the index.dat files; and to clean all other privacy-related traces as cookies, Temporary Internet Files, AutoComplete forms and passwords, UserData records, and many others.

More information about the article:

http://www.milincorporated.com/a-delete-history.html

Writer\\\’s Relief asked:


Writer’s Relief has created services to accommodate the economic challenges writers are facing in 2009. After all, the nation’s best writers—John Steinbeck, William Faulkner and Margaret Mitchell—all wrote their best works during the hardest of their own times.

“Because the new year is one of the best times to submit work to agents and editors, we encourage writers to submit their work in the first few weeks of January—it’s a new year and a great time to make a fresh new start!” says Ronnie L. Smith, President of Writer’s Relief.

Whether or not you utilize their services, Writer’s Relief encourages writers to WRITE. They’ve created different levels of service (including a blog with hundreds of articles on grammar, usage and motivational tips that may very well become every writer’s best reference site).

Writer’s Relief is not alone in its quest to help writers in need meet their goals. In an effort to support all writers, Writer’s Relief encourages writing scholarships. Recently, a financially fit client offered a New Year Scholarship to help a talented writer prepare a full round of submissions. This donation, which was anonymously given, had profound impact on the receiver.

“The last few months have been very trying due to employment/financial difficulties. The generosity has enabled me to continue [writing] in that endeavor and, more importantly, was a very unexpected demonstration of human kindness from a stranger,” said the anonymous recipient. Because of one writer’s generosity, the recipient of the scholarship was able to enjoy all the services that the Writer’s Relief A La Carte Service has to offer.

Writer’s Relief offers services for writers in every income bracket. Simply register at the company’s Web site, http://www.WritersRelief.com, to receive their informative monthly Newsflash, sent via e-mail, which provides information on writing, proofreading, editing and publishing.

“I want to offer something to every writer. I love sharing the marketing tools we’ve learned since I started this company in 1994,” says Smith. “Regardless of the level of service, we can help every creative writer get his or her work into the right hands.”

Available to writers nationally and internationally, the services and benefits that Writer’s Relief supply are invaluable. They provide expert preparation of industry-standard cover/query letters, target work to the most appropriate markets, proofread with a keen eye, track every submission and help with handling rejection, as well as other services.

Spa Covers asked:


Every week I get a call from someone wanting to know if we can build a custom spa cover. The answer is yes with a qualification. Not every spa can be covered. Before you let work begin on that custom spa idea you should consider how you plan to cover it. After the spa is built it will often be too late.

Spa manufacturers are building all sorts of shapes and sizes these days that can be purchased and delivered to your home and covered easily. But for high end custom built spas, that often cost six figures it is not so easy. Unfortunately far to often it is after the spa is complete and the owner gets their first heating bill that they think about a cover.

These spas are often featured in spa magazines and truly look amazing. Who would not want one? They look like theme park attractions you can own. They often feature natural looking rock walls and water falls, spill ways and infinite edges so that while you sit on the spa you can see the landscape beyond. All very impressive and expensive. Unfortunately heating and keeping debris out of such a work of art can also be an expensive proposition.

If you ask the designer of one of these spas how they intended it to be covered when the spa was not in use, the answer is they do not want it covered. That may not seem so bad if the spa is in southern California or some tropical island. However even these places need to keep rain water and blowing debris out of the spa. In snow country it becomes even more important to cover the spa when not in use.

If you are considering having one of these spas built, make sure the designer is including a cover into the process and that it does offer insulation. Just having a safety cover anchored over the spa is not going to keep heat in or debris out. To insulate the water when the spa has different heights around the edge such as a spillway, the spa cover should actually rest on the water. By coming in contact with the water the insulating cover will cut down evaporation and chemical consumption too.

In order for the cover to be easy to attach and remove you also need to consider access around the spa. If you have one side of the spa hanging off in space it may be attractive but fastening any cover on that side would be precarious without some consideration of how to safely maneuver around outside of it.

Likewise a spa buried in a rock wall. If a wall of any kind rises up vertically, although beautiful will always be problematic for fastening and keeping stuff out of the spa. Planning on a cover before built is the only way I know of to deal well with this.

There are solutions available to cover almost any spa if the cover is built into the initial design. It will most likely be a costly spa cover and pricey to replace however not as expensive as leaving the spa uncovered. The reason for the cost is that each time it is built is basically a one off production. This is why most concept cars go straight to a museum. If anything breaks on it there are no replacements sitting on a shelf somewhere.

Health Spa Guru asked:


There are still so many spa myths standing in the way of spa enthusiasts today. Here are some of the top myths answered, so that you can carry on with what you enjoy best. Test your spa knowledge and see if you have been mislead into believing one of the 10 spa myths mentioned below.

1. Acupuncture is painful and risky

There is no pain involved in acupuncture. You may feel a slight pricking sensation when the needle is inserted, but a number of people do not even feel the needle. The needle is very fine like a hair with a rounded point. In very rare cases a tiny bruise can be left on the skin after the procedure. Disposable needles are used during treatments, therefore cutting out any risk involved.

2. You can catch skin diseases from tanning beds

This fear generated from the fact that many people lie **** in sun beds during their tanning sessions and have direct contact with the tanning bed. Tanning salons are however required by law to disinfect the liner in the tanning bed after each session. If you are concerned that this has not been done at your local salon, you are at liberty to question the salon or spa manager.

3. Sauna’s cause hair loss

There is no direct evidence that suggests that individuals using saunas on a frequent basis are prone to premature hair loss or balding. The heat in the sauna ought to aid in increasing circulation in the body which in turn should aid in the promotion of both hair growth and health. Of course, if you increase the heat setting way above the recommended heat setting for the sauna you may experience some problems. You can always wrap a damp cloth around your hair and rub conditioner in your hair before going into the sauna if you would like to ensure that your hair stays moisturized.

4. You have to be ***** during a spa treatment

This is not true. There are a number of treatments that can be performed fully clothed or in your costume. It is best to ask your spa therapist before booking your spa treatment. Although some spa treatments are done with minimal clothing on, spa therapists make certain to respect your privacy and keep you comfortable at all times. Therapists often leave the room when you remove your clothes for a treatment and wait for you to cover yourself with a towel before reentering the room. Alternatively, the therapist will lift a towel up to shade you while you lie down and cover yourself with a towel. Special towel techniques are also used throughout treatments so that the only area of your body that is exposed is the section of the body with which they are working on.

5. Real men do not go to spas

The spa industry as well as worldwide ideals have changed drastically in the last couple of years. The increase in men visiting spas has increased profoundly in the past few years and is continuing to grow at a rapid pace. Male specific treatments have been designed with the male in mind and the spa has become a place for men to spend some quality time relaxing with their loved ones. Bachelor parties at spas have also become the new trend, while men start to realize the importance of self-nurturing and the fact that spas can be both enjoyable and masculine in nature.

6. Botox can cause permanent ****** paralysis

This is not true. Botox can cause temporary muscle paralysis. However, this muscle paralysis usually only lasts 6 months as the substance is broken down by the body during this period of time. You would need to be injected by large doses of the substance if you were to experience severe side effects. Nevertheless, Botox should only be administered by a professional. Booking a session with an unqualified therapist could leave you at risk.

7. Anti-age treatments are gimmicks

Anti-Ageing products used in treatments usually provide skin protecting and nourishing ingredients such as: antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, SPF and skin nourishing oils. This ingredient is highly beneficial to the skin by providing it with all the ingredients that it needs to stay healthy, consequently preventing ageing from the sun, pollution or from lack of moisture and nutrients. Anti-age treatments can definitely assist in preventing premature ageing of the skin and keeping the skin more healthy and elastic. Of course, you cannot expect one treatment to do the trick; this treatment process needs to be an ongoing preventative treatment.

8. Spa holidays are boring and for lazy people

Spa holidays can be as active or as relaxed as you would like. Numerous spa resorts offer spa exercise programs such as Reiki, Pilates, Yoga and water aerobics to name a few. Specialized treatment programs can be arranged for you depending on your needs and requirements. Some spa resorts are positioned near ski resorts where you can enjoy the active lifestyle on the slopes and then retreat into the spa for some muscle relaxation. Depending on what spa you go to, there are diverse treatments and facilities available for both the active and those wanting to relax. Whether you want to lose weight, increase fitness, relax or experience something new, you can definitely find it at one of the many spas listed worldwide.

9. Reflexology is not safe for pregnant women

Reflexology helps balance the body by aiding the body to seek its own equilibrium. Reflexology cannot make the body do something that it does not want to do. It merely facilitates in the process as a guide. Therefore any fears regarding miscarriage or damage to the baby or fetus are most definitely inaccurate. Reflexology would in fact be a wonderful treatment to incorporate into one’s lifestyle during pregnancy. Not only will it assist the body in healing and balancing itself but it will relax the mother and in turn also relax the baby.

10. You have to be extremely agile and flexible to practice yoga

Anyone can practice yoga. Although some yoga postures are more complex and more difficult to perform, you do not have to be able to master these poses when you first start practicing the art. Yoga instructors select poses suited to your body and that will benefit you the most. These poses would have just as good effect on your body and mind as any of the other more advanced poses. You will be able to notice benefits from your yoga poses whether you are at a beginner or advanced yoga level.

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